External Failure and Internal Failure Cost

Definition and Explanation of Quality Costs: The concept of Cost Of Quality (COQ) has been around for many years. Dr. Joseph M. Juran in 1951 in his Quality Control Handbook included a section on COQ. The Quality Cost Committee under the Quality Management Division was established by the American Society for Quality (ASQ) in 1961. However it was Philip B. Crosby who popularized the use of COQ because of his book Quality is Fre in 1979. Several current quality system standards, ISO 9000, QS-9000, AS-9000, reference the use of COQ for quality improvement. The concept of Cost of Quality is confusing.It does not refer to costs such as using a higher grade leather to make a wallet or using 14K gold instead of gold plating in jewelry. Instead the term quality cost refers to all of the costs that are incurred to prevent defects or that result from defects in products. What is being referenced are the costs due to the lack of quality or costs to ensure quality is produced. We understand them as the costs that are associated with preventing, detecting, and correcting defective work. Some authors refer to these costs as â€Å"Cost of Poor Quality†. Sometimes poor quality costs refer only to the â€Å"failure† costs.Crosby refers to the COQ costs as â€Å"Price of conformance† (the prevention and appraisal costs) and the â€Å"Price of non-conformance† (the failure costs). These are divided into conformance and non-conformance costs, also called control costs and failure of control costs. Figure 1 Quality costs can be broken down into four broad groups. These four groups are also termed as four (4) types of quality costs. Two of these groups are known as prevention costs and appraisal costs. These are incurred in an effort to keep defective products from falling into the hands of customers.The other two groups of costs are known as internal failure and external failure. Internal and external failure costs are incurred because defects are produc ed despite efforts to prevent them therefore these costs are also known as costs of poor quality. However, we will be focussing on the internal costs failure and the external costs failure for this assignment. The non-conformance costs come into play when the software does not conform to the quality requirements. These costs are divided into internal failure costs and external failure costs. Types of quality costs are explained below : Internal Costs Failure:Failure costs are incurred when a product fails to conform to its design specifications. Failure costs can be either internal or external. Internal failure costs result from identification of defects before they are shipped to customers. These costs include scrap, rejected products, reworking of defective units, and downtime caused by quality problem. The more effective a company's appraisal activities the greater the chance of catching defects internally and the greater the level of internal failure costs. This is the price tha t is paid to avoid incurring external failure costs, which can be devastating.On the non-conformance side, we have fault removal costs that can be attributed to the internal failure costs as well as the external failure costs. This is because if we found a fault and want to remove it, it would always result in costs no matter whether costs in an internal or external failure. Actually, there does not have to be a failure at all. Considering code inspections, faults are found and removed that have never caused a failure during testing. It is also a good example that the removal costs can be quite different due to the different techniques.When a test identifies a failure, there needs to be considerable effort spent to find the corresponding fault. During an inspection, faults are found directly. Fault removal costs also contain the costs for necessary re-testing and re-inspections. External Cost Failure: When a defective product is delivered to customer, external failure cost is the re sult. External failure costs include warranty, repairs and replacements, product recalls, liability arising from legal actions against a company, and lost sales arising from a reputation for poor quality. Such costs can decimate profits.In the past, some managers have taken the attitude, â€Å"Let's go ahead and ship everything to customers, and we'll take care of any problems under the warranty. † This attitude generally results in high external failure costs, customer ill will, and declining market share and profits. External failure costs usually give rise to another intangible cost. These intangible costs are hidden costs that involve the company's image. They can be three or four times greater than tangible costs. Missing a deadline or other quality problems can be intangible costs of quality.Internal failure costs, costs and intangible costs that impair the goodwill of the company occur due to a poor quality so these costs are also known as costs of poor quality by some persons. External failure also cause support costs. These are all costs connected to customer care, especially the effort from service workers identifying the problem. Finally, compensation costs could be part of external failure costs, if the failure caused some kind of damage at the customer site. We might also include loss of sales because of bad reputation in the external failure costs but do not look at it in this paper because it is out of scope.Costs of quality assurance (Compiled from Gavett 1968, Adam and Evertt-1998) Prevention Costs| Appraisal Costs| Internal Failure Costs| External Failure Costs| †¢ Quality planning†¢ QC administration and systems planning†¢ Quality related training†¢ Inspection of incoming in process and final product†¢ Processes planning†¢ Design review†¢ Quality data analysis†¢ Procurement planning†¢ Market research†¢ Vendor surveys†¢ Reliability studies†¢ System development†¢ Quality m easurement and control equipment†¢ Product Qualification†¢ Qualification of material| †¢ Incoming Inspection†¢ Testing†¢ Inspection in process†¢ Quality audits†¢ Incoming test and laboratory tests†¢ Checking labor†¢ Laboratory or other measurement service†¢ Setup for test and inspection†¢ Test and inspection material†¢ Outside endorsements for certification†¢ Maintenance and calibration work†¢ Product reengineering review and shipping release†¢ Field testing†¢ Final testing| †¢ Rejections†¢ Scrap at full shop cost†¢ Failure analysis†¢ Scrap and rework, fault of vendor†¢ Material procurement†¢ Factory contact engineering†¢ Machine down†¢ QC investigations of failures†¢ Material review activity†¢ Repair and troubleshooting†¢ Excess inventory| †¢ Recall†¢ Complaints handling†¢ Goodwill loss†¢ Warranty costs†¢ Bad publicity†¢ Field maintenance and product service†¢ Returned material processing and repair†¢ Fall in market share†¢ Replacement inventories†¢ Low employees morale†¢ Strained distributor relation| References 1. Jones, Capers, Patterns of Software Systems Failure and Success, International Thompsom Computer Press, Boston, Mass. , 1996. 2. Crosby, P. , Quality Improvement Through Defect Prevention, Philip Crosby Assosiates, 1985. 3. Beecroft, G. Dennis, What is Your Quality Costing You? IIQP Newsletter, Winter 2000. 4. Campanella, Jack (Ed. ). Principles of Quality Costs (Third Edition). ASQ Quality Press: Milwaukee, Wisconsin. 1999. 219pp. 5. Harrington, H. J. , Poor Quality Costs, Mercel Dekker, Inc. , 1987. 6. Morse, Roth, and Poston, Measuring, Planning, and Controlling Quality Costs, National Association of Accountant, 1987.

Swallowing Stones

In Joyce McDonald’s novel, â€Å"Swallowing Stones† the protagonist, Michael MacKenzie, continues to make bad choices which lead to trouble. On Michael MacKenzie’s seventeenth birthday, he got a . 45-70 Winchester rifle from his grandpa. Michael figured he’d try out his new gun. Michael and a friend, Joe Sadowski, decided to shoot the rifle on the Fourth of July. They had no idea of the repercussion that it would cause when they did. The bullet that they fired traveled four blocks over and hit a man named Charlie Ward in the head as he was fixing his roof.Michael was on his way to his driving test at the D. M. V. when on the radio, it was broadcasted that Charlie Ward was mysteriously killed by a bullet from the sky on the Fourth of July. Michael finally realizes that he fired the shot that killed Charlie Ward. Michael panics and decides to hide his rifle in his back yard under a pile of wood. When the police go around from door to door, interviewing peopl e and asking if anyone had any firearms, they get to Michael’s house. When the police ask if they had any firearms, Michael’s dad volunteers the information that his son owns a . 5-70 Winchester rifle.The police ask to see the rifle, but Michael makes up a story that it was stolen from his friends car, thus making his friend an accessory. Jenna, Charlie Ward’s daughter, is hunting for her fathers killer, she has pictured him as a faceless killer, a cold hearted man, but she finally hears from the town gossip that the shot came from the MacKenzie house during a party. Soon the police begin to think that it was Michael who fired the shot and they search the property, and they use metal detectors to try and find the gun, but come up with only a shell casing from the rifle. Swallowing Stones Mark Romero Tigner English 9 Period 3 October 19, 2012 Swallowing Stones Michael Mackenzie will think that he is having the best day of his life on his seventeenth birthday party on the Fourth of July, because in that moment he does not know that he has accidentally killed a man. In Swallowing Stones, Joyce McDonald has written about a teenage boy whose life will turn upside down when he finds out he has killed Jenna Ward’s father, Charlie Ward.The Briarwood police department desperately looks for the killer while Michael hides it from everyone except for a few of his friends, making them accessories. When Michael hears about Charlie’s death on the radio his best friend Joe Sadowski, who was with him when he shot his . 45-70 Winchester rifle, tried to convince him that it wasn’t him who killed the man. Soon, the two friends find out that it was him and Michael tries to hide the evidence. The police manage to narrow their search to about forty kids that were at Mi chael’s party.Michael starts to feel unsafe around everyone except one friend, Amy Ruggerio. He visits her every day after work, but she starts to feel uncomfortable with him. She finally tells him that she saw him and Joe walk out of the woods with the rifle on the day of his party. While this was happening, Jenna kept dreaming with Michael and a huge tree but she didn’t know why. She also thought she saw him waiting outside her house on some nights, watching her. She begins to question why. Whenever she thinks about the killer Michael’s face pops into her mind.Everybody started to suspect it was Joe so Michael starts feeling guilty. Finally, he takes the rifle and drives to police station to confess. On his way there, he visits the Spirit Tree, a huge tree in the woods that Joe and he visited as little kids to hang out. When he gets there he’s surprised to find Jenna sleeping next to the tree. He decides to wait until she wakes up to tell her the truth. Joyce McDonald uses many forms of literary language and devices, such as similes-a figure of speech in which two unlike things are compared, and etaphors-a figure of speech in which a term or phrase is applied to something to which it is not literally applicable in order to suggest a resemblance. â€Å"The windows were open and the curtains swelled like gently billowing sails in the breeze† is one example of a simile. Another would be â€Å"His tongue felt like an oversized cotton ball. † A metaphor would be â€Å"He was a walking time bomb. † Another metaphor would be â€Å"The whole night had been an emotional roller-coaster ride. †Michael Mackenzie did change throughout the story. At the beginning, when he found out about Charlie’s death, he told himself that it could’ve been anyone who fired that bullet. After time he starts to wonder if it was him that night that had killed Charlie. The police also provide evidence suggesting that the bullet had come from the woods behind Michael’s house. He realizes it was him, but he keeps it a secret. At the end of the story he changes though. His guilt was eating him alive.He decides to turn himself in to the police and not get any of his friends in anymore harm. He also did it so that Jenna knew who it was that had killed her father. So she wouldn’t have to live the rest of her life not knowing who it was. Swallowing Stones was a magnificent novel. Joyce McDonald did a splendid job in this work of art. She made it so that the reader could really feel the suspense in the story. I recommend this book to anyone and everyone. It’s a really good story and most people would enjoy it.

MGMT Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

MGMT - Assignment Example The rule further helps to clarify that small retail business are not part of this rule which means that they are not affected by it. This regulation will affect my business in terms of accessing government procurement programs as well as obtaining financial support (Regulations.gov, para-1). The regulation try to define what is a small business as a sized standard and include all its branches. This proposal was put forth to provide clarity on the category of each operating business that has employees. It further provides the basis of whether a business qualifies for acquiring government procurement contract. I am against the proposed regulation because it has limited applicability in the actual situation. It fails to recognise other business such as retail trade enterprises as part of small business. Further, it represents just the opposite by stating that a small business is a standard sized business including its subsidiaries. One my comment has been submitted and acceptable my business will be able to fall under the definition of small business as explained by the small business administration. This will further make my business to qualify for government contracts and financial assistance. Regulations.gov.Small Business Size Standards: Industries with Employee Based Size Standards Not Part of Manufacturing, Wholesale Trade, or Retail Trade.Web.14.09.014 :< http://ww

Coral Reefs Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Coral Reefs - Research Paper Example of this student that the reader will come away from this paper with a more informed understanding of how the coral reefs are an integral part of the ecosystem and the means by which action must be encouraged in order to save them from any further destruction. Although it is true that these reefs are beautiful, they allow for tens of thousands of different forms of sea life to reside within these reefs; in a way that they could not within the deeper oceans and other unprotected regions of the sea. This protection from indigenous species allows for species that would otherwise have little to no protection from predators to thrive within such an environment. Moreover, the habitat that the coral reefs provide creates a somewhat sustainable ecosystem which humans can then leverage in the form of planned and ethical fishing. An analysis of existing coral reefs denote that approximately 30-40 million people are year are fed from the sea life that is harvested within these zones. Naturally, even though this only makes up a small portion of the earth’s population, it forms an essential part of defining the way in which the food chain operates in the means by which tens of millions of people gain sustenance each and every year. Another element of great importance with regards to the coral reefs has to do with the ability of the coral reef to turn carbon dioxide into limestone. Ultimately, as the ongoing fear over global climate change has evidenced, the increasing levels of CO2 have created a situation in which CO2 is being evidenced to a further and further degree within the environment (Villanueva 887). As the earth does not have the ability to remedy this increase at the same pace that human industrial activities and burning of fossil fuel creates it, the need for protecting the earth’s natural ability to transform CO2 into other substances is essential. Even though it might not be possible to reverse the rate of global warming/climate change, seeking to

Votes for Women Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Votes for Women - Essay Example He was in a very powerful position, as there was no Liberal MP who could even try to oppose him. It is well known that Asquith was totally against the campaign for women's vote right. Partly this was so because of the way he considered the voting: he did not think there was need for each individual to need to have a vote, he considered that such representation was more an issue of representing a class or community. That is why one man could represent the ideas of all of his family. Moreover, there were lots of serious problems facing the Parliament within 1900 - 1914, and Asquith was sure that "women's rights to vote" was a minor issue. In addition he paid no attention to demonstrations while he was sure that they did not reflect people's thinking. There was another aspect. If the law giving women the vote was ever going to be passed, it would have to happen in the Parliament. That means that such parties as the Liberals, the Conservatives and the Labour Party would have a part to play. It is false to think that all male politicians were opposed to female suffrage. In fact the Labour Party supported it, and leading Labour figures were deeply involved in the case. A substantial part of the Liberal Party supported it as well, together with many leading Liberals, including Churchill, Sir Edward Grey, and Lloyd George. Nevertheless there was much opposition to it among the Conservatives, as was vividly depicted in conservative Lord Curzon's speech in 1912. In society those who were against the female suffrage used a wide range of arguments, in 1900 many of the opponents to the movement simply considered that it was self evident that women were not intended to vote. To put it differently women should not have the vote because they simply were females. This was probably the position of most citizens in the country. It is worth mentioning that when people began to rationalise the opposition, occurred women who spoke out against female suffrage. The first group of people who opposed the movement were the people who considered the system to be fine and could not be improved further. Those people objected to giving anyone who was not already eligible to vote the right to do so. They had the vote right themselves, and feared any franchise extension. An elitist system of government and objection of widening the democracy was their major belief. As the debate over enlargement the pool of voters grew, arguments against women's suffrage began to occur. One of them was that all government, in England and in the Empire, rests on physical force, which women do not possess, or do not want to contribute to it because of their constitution. The idea is that women are too physically weak and it is not in their nature to be soldiers. The second aspect of the argument was that women influence would evidently help the introduction of pacifism into society. In relation to the Empire there were two further argument lines. One meant that if women got opportunity to gain power in Britain, a demand for the

Migration Impact on the UK's Economy between 2005 and 2015 Dissertation

Migration Impact on the UK's Economy between 2005 and 2015 - Dissertation Example Interpretation of the findings will help the researcher to draw inference to the research questions or the main agenda of the research and accordingly arrive at the conclusion. Chapter 2: Literature Review World migration and economic growth is considered to be an ever-researched subject in the contemporary economics. S. P. Kerr and W. R. Kerr have defined net migration in an economy during a particular period of time as the difference between total number of immigrants and emigrants within the economy within that specified time period. In this context, immigrants are defined as the individuals who migrate or shift to another country whereas emigrants of an economy are those who shift from other economies to a particular economy within the specified time period. In this chapter, global migration and the tendency behind this, the effect of migration on a particular economy and finally, the consequences faced by the economy of United Kingdom will be analysed in the light of theoretical framework and economic models. 2.1. Economic Factors Influencing Migration According to the economists, economic migration occurs mostly due to the influence of two discrete factors. These are as follows: 2.1.1. Push Factors Many economists such as Boyle, Halfacree and Robinson have identified that lack of economic opportunities, scope for higher education, quality jobs in both technical and non-technical sectors act as push factors and drives individuals to migrate in other part of the world.

How Art Deco came to be Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

How Art Deco came to be - Term Paper Example It mainly affected decorative arts, such as furniture, architecture, graphic arts, pottery or jewelry, but its influence extended to other artistic fields like films or fashion. â€Å"This movement was, in a sense, a broad umbrella covering many different artistic styles and movements in the early 20th century such as Neoclassical, Constructivism, Cubism, Modernism, Bauhaus, Art Nouveau, and Futurism†. As Carol Fisher says, its origins are rooted in a reaction to the flowing motifs and fussiness of Art Nouveau with its emphasis on individual craftsmen made pieces. Its strongest points were its elegance and functionality. It was mainly based in geometric forms, zigzags and curves, and it is said that it was influenced also by tribal arts from Central America or Africa. Of course, the epoch’s advances in machinery and technology also influenced Art Deco, especially in the use of new materials such as crystal, steel, aluminum, lacquer or inlaid wood. These materials were u sed to produce pieces of art with staggered motifs, streamlined forms, stylized lines, gentle clean curves and rosette patterns. Exotic motifs and patterns inspired in nature, like plants or flowers, were also typical in Art Deco’s works of art. The declination of Art Deco came when it started to be seen as extremely loud, excessive and opulent art. Art Deco was finally ended, until the 80s, when there was an interest for it coming from graphic designers. Some colonial countries like Philippines continued using Art Deco until 1960. (Pheebay.com, "So What is Art Deco Design", October 2008. http://www.pheebay.com). Streamline Moderne was the artistic movement which followed Art Deco as a consequence of the Great Depression of 1929, based in the principles of aerodynamics and the simplicity of lines, ideas that were more in agreement with the sobriety of that period. Some splendid examples of Art Deco buildings could be the spire of the Chrysler Building or the Rockefeller Center in New York, the Bacardi Building in La Havana, the Goinia Theatre in Brazil, the BBC Broadcasting House in London, Palais de Tokyo in Paris or the Sta. Cecilia's Hall in Manila. Also, magnificent examples can be found in

Who can enforce the articles of association Essay

Who can enforce the articles of association - Essay Example This sort of contract (statutory contract) has certain features distinct from an ordinary contract. These features were explained by the Court of Appeal in Bratton Seymore Service Co Ltd v Oxborough. These features include: i. Origin. The contract being a statutory one originates from the statute instead of an agreement between the parties. By virtue of the fact that it is statutory, it cannot be invalidated on grounds of misrepresentation, mistake, undue influence or duress. iii. Ammendment. The contract can only be amended by a special majority. This means that only a minimum of three-quarters of the members are required to vote in favor of the resolution. This is encapsulated under Sec. 21. With the contracts characterized by the above features the question of enforcement becomes a major issue mainly because of the last feature- Rights. Not all members of the company have the right to enforce rights contained in the articles. So this raises the question- who has such rights? The enforcement of statutory contracts has been the subject of constant academic debates due to contradictory case law. This will be illustrated by two cases. The following two cases illustrate the complexities that arise when a member tries to enforce a company’s articles. In this case, the articles contained a clause stating that a certain member would be appointed as the company’s solicitor. This member was not appointed as such and proceeded to unsuccessfully sue the company for breach. The court held that the member could not sue simply because there was no contractual relationship between a member as solicitor and the company. The company’s articles of association contained a clause stating that ‘no resolution of directors on certain matters would be valid if either of two named managing directors voted against the resolution’. The plaintiff was one of the managing directors and he voted against this resolution but the company

Pentagon Museum of Art Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3250 words

Pentagon Museum of Art - Essay Example Place and time are both texts. So my personal Pentagon Museum of Art is both a place and a long sequence in time. My hiding place is located on the roof of a Midtown Manhattan building. It is a light blue pentagon-shaped construction with a yellow little door as its only entrance. I retreat in that small space of paradise during my off hours. After work in an ad agency as a copywriter, I come over here to relax, to take a nap, to resume writing my first novel, or to take a look at its surrounding white-painted walls each one holding in its surface a masterpiece work of art by Salvador Dal and Pablo Picasso. They are my favorite painters so I placed 5 of their paintings on the five walls of my private Pentagon Museum of Art right on top of a metropolitan apartment building in New York. My Pentagon is an arts Pentagon, not a military one. I find myself at peace with my own self here. It's a metalinguistic feeling that I enjoy to the max. I can lye on the bed. I can write my novel. I can watch closely at the paintings. I can read a book. I can listen to music. My favorite music. My favorite books. Intertextuality. Intratextuality. Extratextuality. All of them merge within my own self. Intertextuality among the paintings. Intratextuality inside my novel. Extratextuality with the surrounding environment that feeds my urgings for creating a different and distinct world of my own. The text becomes a sign, and according to C. S. Peirce the sign can be an icon, a symbol, or an index. Intertextuality can be an icon, intratextuality an index, and extratextuality a symbol. I have decided to make everything in all out of my hiding place. My Pentagon Museum of Art. My little piece of paradise on Earth. Here there is no place for luxury. Everything is common and simple. There is a fridge by the door. Five windows on each side of the pentagon. There is a computer table in the middle of the room with its corresponding PC on top. Five paintings of two master artists of all time: Salvador Dal and Pablo Picasso. There is a small bed by the top vortex, between the two top sides of the pentagon. A nice sound equipment with the Sony trademark right by the side of the computer table. There is an executive rotating chair in front of the computer table. Here everything is interconnected. That's part of the hyperlinking of the objects. One leads to the other. I can go in a matter of seconds from the radio to the computer, from the chair right onto the bed. And I can jump from my bed in order to take a fresh look at one of the Dal's Christs. Texts are interwoven in my mind as well as in this little retreat of comfort and peace. Every text has its rhythm, and I find meaning in the rhythm of this small building with five walls and a quiet sound of the music in my ears. That is Bob Dylan playing with The Traveling Wilburys. At the End of the Line. Yes. At the very end of the line I find a melody filled with harmony in the creativeness of my life. I find meaning in each and every white wall with the paintings hanging like sovereign pieces of wonderful signs. Picasso and Dal share with me their meaningful creatures of their minds. Dylan does his part beautifully singing "Blowing in the Wind". "Like a Rolling Stone" is coming up after that tune. I keep writing on my clone PC. My first novel is taking

Legal Issues in Education Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Legal Issues in Education - Essay Example It also includes the infrastructure contributing to the mission of educational institutions (Aby & Kuhn, 2000). It is, therefore, important that institutions uphold this freedom and protect it at all costs. Academic freedom entails a number of liberties. The university lectures, for example, have security of tenure. This means that they have the freedom to teach their students as they best deem right provided that they do not go beyond ethical boundaries. It also means that they have the freedom to express their thoughts, as well as, seek to undertake research in any field without interference from the university leadership (Andreatta, 2012). In addition, the freedom gives student the freedom to choose what to study in college. This means that the students are not barred from choosing what they can study. The Civil Rights Act and the bill of rights, for example, protect this freedom (Andreatta, 2012). The students also have no cause to be troubled by the university dictating on what they wish to study. They have unions that uphold their rights and interests. Nursing education can be looked at from two angles. It can be analyzed from the standpoint of the teacher or educator and from the angle of the student. For the purpose of this article, both the student angle as well as the teacher’s angle will be the focal point. On the side of the student, the academic freedom implies that the students’ interests’ are placed in consideration when the curriculum is being developed (Iwasiw, Goldenberg & Andrusyszyn, 2009). According to Iwasiw et al (2009), the freedom would allow the nursing faculty members to determine the curriculum. This, however, must be evaluated by a team of competent people who have experience in the field. Giving the faculty members’ unlimited freedom would make them teach substandard education or out of date information. With due respect to this, nursing education curriculum is a

Spanish literature Essay Example for Free

Spanish literature Essay From Latin litterae (plural); letter is the art of written work. The word literature literally means: things made from letters. The body of written works of a language, period, or culture. Imaginative or creative writing, especially of recognized artistic value: Literature must be an analysis of experience and a synthesis of the findings into a unity (Rebecca West). The art or occupation of a literary writer. The body of written work produced by scholars or researchers in a given field. Printed material  Written material such as poetry, novels, essays, etc. , esp works of imagination characterized by excellence of style and expression and by themes of general or enduring interest. The body of written work of a particular culture or people Written or printed matter of a particular type or on a particular subject Printed material giving a particular type of information. The art or profession of a writer Obsolete learning Writing in prose or verse regarded as having permanent worth through its intrinsic excellence. The entire body of writings of a specific language, period, people, etc. The writings dealing with a particular subject. The profession of a writer or author. Literary work or production. Any kind of printed material, as circulars, leaflets, or handbills. Archaic. literary culture; appreciation of letters and books. Creative writing of recognized artistic value  writings in which expression and form, in connection with ideas of permanent and universal interest,are characteristic or essential features, as poetry, novels, history, biography, and essays. Written works (such as poems, plays, and novels) that are considered to be very good and to have lasting importance.

Credit Risk Management in the UK Banking Sector

Credit Risk Management in the UK Banking Sector Background 3 Literature Review 7 Ascertaining why and how banking credit risk exposure is evolving recently 8 Seeing how banks use credit risk evaluation and assessment tools to mitigate their credit risk exposure 11 The steps and methodologies used by banks to identify, plan, map out, define a framework, develop an analysis and mitigate credit risk 13 Determine the relationship between the theories, concepts and models of credit risk management and what goes on practically in the banking world 17 Ascertain the scope to which resourceful credit risk management can perk up bank performance 19 To evaluate how regulators and government are assisting the banks to identify, mitigate credit risk, and helping to adopt the risk-based strategies to increase their profitability, and offering assistance on continuous basis 20 Research Methodology 21 Analysis 23 Ascertaining why and how banking credit risk exposure is evolving recently 23 Seeing how banks use credit risk evaluation and assessment tools to mitigate their credit risk exposure 25 The steps and methodologies used by banks to identify, plan, map out, define a framework, develop an analysis and mitigate credit risk 31 Determine the relationship between the theories, concepts and models of credit risk management and what goes on practically in the banking world 35 Ascertain the scope to which resourceful credit risk management can perk up bank performance 38 To evaluate how regulators and government are assisting the banks to identify, mitigate credit risk, and helping to adopt the risk-based strategies to increase their profitability, and offering assistance on continuous basis 40 Primary Survey 45 Conclusions 46 Recommendations 50 Bibliography 56 Background The sub-prime mortgage meltdown that hit the global banking sector in 2007, was a result of circumstances, actions and repercussions that began years earlier (Long, 2007). It, the sub-prime mortgage crisis, was based on unsound ground from its inception. Sub-prime mortgages represent loans made to borrowers that have lower ratings in their credit than the norm (investopedia, 2007). Due to the lower borrower credit rating, they do not qualify for what is termed as a conventional mortgage due to default risk (investopedia, 2007). Sub-prime mortgages thus carry a higher interest rate to off set the risk increase, which helped to fuel the United States economy through increased home ownership, and the attendant spending that accompanies it (Bajaj and Nixon, 2006). Implemented by the Bush administration in the United States to get the economy rolling after the recession fuelled by the September 11th air attacks, the entire plan began to backfire as early as 2004 as a result of the continu ed building of new housing without the demand (Norris, 2008). The new construction glutted the market bringing down house prices. This, coupled with a slowing economy in the United States resulted in layoffs, as well as many subprime mortgage holders defaulting on their loans, and the crisis ballooned. Some attribute the over lending of subprime mortgages to predatory lending (Squires, 2004, pp. 81-87) along with the underlying faults of using it as an economic stimulus package that did not control the limits on new housing (Cocheo, 2007). That set of circumstances represented the cause of the subprime mortgage crisis that spread globally as a result of the tightening of credit due to defaulted loan sell offs and restricted banking lending ceilings caused by the Basel II Accords (Peterson, 2005). The complexity of the foregoing shall be further explained in the Literature Review section of this study. The preceding summary journey through the subprime mortgage crisis was conducted to reveal the manner in which banking credit crunches can and do occur. The significance of the foregoing to this study represents an example to awaken us to the external factors that can and do cause banking credit crisis situations, thus revealing that despite good management practices such events can m anifest themselves. It is also true that poor or lax banking practices can have the same effects. Credit risk management represents the assessing of the risk in pursuing a certain course, and or courses of action (Powell, 2004). In addition to the foregoing U.S. created subprime mortgage crisis, the appearance of new forms of financial instruments has and is causing a problem in credit risk management with regard to the banking sector. As the worlds second largest financial centre, the United Kingdom is subject to transaction volumes that increase the risks the banking sector takes as so many new forms of financial instruments land there first. McClave (1996, p. 15) provides us with an understanding of bank risk that opens the realm to give us an overview of the problem by telling us: Banks must manage risk more objectively, using quantitative skills to understand portfolio data and to predict portfolio performance. As a result, risk management will become more process-oriented and less dependent on individuals. Angelopoulos and Mourdoukoutas (2001, p. 11) amplify the preceding in stating that Banking risk management is both a philosophical and an operational issue. They add: As a philosophical issue, banking risk management is about attitudes towards risk and the payoff associated with it, and strategies in dealing with them. As an operational issue, risk management is about the identification and classification of banking risks, and methods and procedures to measure, monitor, and control them. (Angelopoulos and Mourdoukoutas, 2001, p. 11) In concluding, Angelopoulos and Mourdoukoutas (2001, p. 11) tell us that the two approaches are in reality not divorced, and or independent form each other, and that attitudes concerning risk contribute to determining the guidelines for the measurement of risk as well as its control and monitoring. The research that has been conducted has been gathered to address credit risk management in the United Kingdom banking sector. In order to equate such, data has been gathered from all salient sources, regardless of their locale as basic banking procedures remain constant worldwide. References specific to the European Union and the United Kingdom were employed in those instances when the nuances of legislation, laws, policies and related factors dictated and evidenced a deviance that was specific. In terms of importance, credit risk is one of the most important functions in banking as it represents the foundation of how banks earn money from deposited funds they are entrusted with. This being the case, the manner in which banks manage their credit risk is a critical component of their performance over the near term as well as long term. The implications are that todays decisions impact the future, thus banks cannot approach current profitability without taking measures to ensure that decisions made in the present do not impact them negatively in the future (Comptroller of the Currency, 2001). A well designed, functioning and managed credit risk rating system promotes the safety of a bank as well as soundness in terms of making informed decisions (Comptroller of the Currency, 2001). The system works by measuring the different types of credit risk through dividing them into groups that differentiate risk by the risk posed. This enables management as well as bank examiners to mon itor trends and changes to risk exposure, and this minimise risk through diversifying the types of risk taken on through separation (Comptroller of the Currency, 2001). The types of credit risks a bank faces represents a broad array of standard, meaning old and establishes sources, as well as new fields that are developing, gaining favour, and or impacting banks as a result of the tightness of international banking that creates a ripple effect. The aforementioned subprime crisis had such an effect in that the closeness of the international banking community accelerated developments. The deregulation of banking has increased the risk stakes for banks as they now are able to engage in a broad array of lending and investment practices (Dorfman, 1997, pp. 67-73). Banking credit risk has been impacted by technology, which was one of the contributing factors in the subprime crisis (Sraeel, 2008). Technology impacts banks on both sides of the coin in that computing power and new software permits banks to devise and utilise historical risk calculations in equating present risk forms. However, as it is with all formulas, they are only as effective as the par ameters entered (Willis, 2003). The interconnected nature of the global banking system means that bank risk has increased as a result of the quick manner in which financial instruments, credit risk transfer, and other systems, and or forms of risk are handled. The Bank for International Settlements led a committee that looked into Payment and Settlement Systems, which impacts all forms of banking credit risk, both new forms as well as long standing established ones in loans, investments and other fields (TransactionDirectory.com, 2008). The report indicates that while technology and communication systems are and have increased the efficiency of banking through internal management as well as banking systems, these same areas, technology and communications systems also have and are contributing to risk. The complexity of the issues that arise in a discussion of credit risk management means that there are many terms that are applicable to the foregoing that are banking industry specific to this area. In presenting this material, it was deemed that these special terms would have more impact if they were explained, in terms of their context, as they occur to ease the task of digesting the information. This study will examine credit risk management in the UK banking sector, and the foregoing thus will take into account banking regulations, legislation, external and internal factors that impact upon this. Literature Review The areas to be covered by this study in relationship to the topic area Credit Risk Management in the UK Banking Sector entails looking at as well as examining it using a number of assessment and analysis points, as represented by the following: Ascertaining why and how banking credit risk exposure is evolving recently. Seeing how banks use credit risk evaluation and assessment tools to mitigate their credit risk exposure. The steps and methodologies used by banks to identify, plan, map out, define a framework, develop an analysis and mitigate credit risk. Determine the relationship between the theories, concepts and models of credit risk management and what goes on practically in the banking world. Ascertain the scope to which resourceful credit risk management can perk up bank performance. To evaluate how regulators and government are assisting the banks to identify, mitigate credit risk, and helping to adopt the risk-based strategies to increase their profitability, and offering assistance on continuous basis. The foregoing also represents the research methodology, which shall be further examined in section 3.0. These aspects have been included here as they represented the focus of the Literature Review, thus dictating the approach. The following review of literature contains segments of the information found on the aforementioned five areas, with the remainder referred to in the Analysis section of this study. Ascertaining why and how banking credit risk exposure is evolving recently. In a report generated by the Bank for International Settlements stated that while transactional costs have been reduced as a result of advanced communication systems, the other side of this development has seen an increase with regard to the potential for disruptions to spread quickly and widely across multiple systems (TransactionDirectory.com, 2008). The Report goes onto add that concerns regarding the speed in which transactions occur is not reflected adequately in risk controls, stress tests, crisis management procedures as well as contingency funding plans (TransactionDirectory.com, 2008). The speed at which transactions happen means that varied forms of risk can move through the banking system in such a manner so as to spread broadly before the impact of these transactions is known, as was the case with the subprime mortgage crisis debt layoff. One of the critical problems in the subprime crisis was that it represented a classic recent example of the ripple effect caused by rapid interbanking communications, and credit risk transfer. When the U.S. housing bubble burst, refinance terms could not cover the dropping house prices thus leading to defaults. The revaluation of housing prices as a result of overbuilding forced a correction in the U.S. housing market that drove prices in many cases below the assessed mortgage value (Amadeo, 2007). The subprime mortgage problem was further exacerbated by mortgage packages such as fixed rate, balloon, adjustable rate, cash-out and other forms that the failure of the U.S. housing market impacted (Demyanyk and Van Hemert, 2007). As defaults increased banks sold off their positions in bad as well as good loans they deemed as risks as collateralised debt obligations and sold them to differing investor groups (Eckman, 2008). Some of these collateralised debt obligations, containing subprim e and other mortgages, were re-bundled and sold again on margin to still another set of investors looking for high returns, sometimes putting down $1 million on a $100 million package and borrowing the rest (Eckman, 2008). When default set in, margins calls began, and the house of cards started caving in. Derivatives represent another risk form that has increased banking exposure. The preceding statement is made because new forms of derivatives are being created all of the time (Culp. 2001, p. 215). Derivatives are not new, they have existed since the 1600s in a rudimentary form as predetermined prices for the future delivery of farming products (Ivkovic, 2008). Ironically, derivatives are utilised in todays financial sector to reduce risk via changing the financial exposure, along with reducing transaction costs (Minehan and Simons, 1995). In summary, some of the uses of derivatives entail taking basic financial instruments as represented by bonds, loans and stocks, as a few examples, and then isolating basic facets such as their agreement to pay, agreements to receive or exchange cash as well as other considerations (financial) and packaging them is financial instruments (Molvar, et al, 1995). While derivatives, in theory, help to spread risk, spreading risk is exactly what caused t he subprime meltdown as the risk from U.S. mortgage were bundled and sold, repackaged, margined, and thus created a raft of exposure that suffered from the domino effect when the original house of cards came crashing down. Other derivative forms include currency swaps as well as interest rate derivatives that are termed as over the counter (Cocheo, 1993). The complexity of derivatives has increased to the point where: auditors will need to have special knowledge to be able to evaluate the derivatives measurement and disclosure so they conform with GAAP. For example, features embedded in contracts or agreements may require separate accounting as a derivative, while complex pricing structures may make assumptions used in estimating the derivative s fair value more complex, too. (Coppinger and Fitzsimons, 2002) The preceding brings attention to the issues in evaluating the risks of derivatives, and banks having the proper staffing, financial programs and criteria to rate derivative risks on old as well as the consistently new forms being developed. Andrew Crockett, the former manager for the Bank of International Settlements, in commenting on derivatives presented the double-edged sword that these financial instruments present, and thus the inherent dangers (Whalen, 2004) When properly used, (derivatives) can be a powerful means of controlling risk that allows firms to economize on scarce capital. However, it is possible for new instruments to be based on models, which are poorly designed or understood, or for the instruments to give rise to a high degree of common behaviour in traded markets. The result can be large losses to individual firms or increased market volatility. The foregoing provides background information that relates to understanding why and how banking credit risk exposure has and is evolving. The examples provided have been utilised to illustrate this. Seeing how banks use credit risk evaluation and assessment tools to mitigate their credit risk exposure. As credit risk is the focal point throughout this study, a definition of the term represents an important aspect. Credit risk is defined as (Investopedia, 2008): The risk of loss of principal orloss of a financial reward stemming from a borrowers failure to repay a loan or otherwise meet a contractual obligation. Credit risk arises whenever a borrower is expecting to use future cash flows to pay a current debt. Investors are compensated for assuming credit risk by way of interest payments from the borrower or issuer of a debt obligation. Risk, in terms of investments, is closely aligned with the potential return being offered (Investopedia, 2008). The preceding means that the higher the risk, the higher the rate of return expected by those investing in the risk. Banks utilise a variety of credit risk evaluation and assessment tools to apprise them of credit risk probabilities so that they can mitigate, and or determine their risk exposure. There are varied forms of credit risk models, which are defined as tools to estimate credit risk probability in terms of losses from banking operations in specific as well as overall areas (Lopez and Saidenburg, 2000, pp. 151-165). Lopez and Saidenberg (1999) advise us that the main use of models by banks is to provide forecasts concerning the probability of how losses might occur in the credit portfolio, and the manner in which they might happen. They advise that the aforementioned credit risk model projection of loss distribution is founded on two factors (Lopez and Saidenberg, 1999): the multivariate, which means having more than one variable (Houghton Mifflin, 2008) distribution concerning the credit losses in terms of all of the credits in the banks portfolio, and the weighting vector, meaning the direction, characterising these credits. As can be deduced, the ability to measure credit risk is an important factor in improving the risk management capacity of a bank. The importance of the preceding is contained in the Basel II Accord that states the capital requirement is three times the projected maximum loss that could occur in terms of a portfolio position (Vassalou, M., Xing, Y., 2003). Risk models and risk assessment tools form and are a structural part of the new Basel II Accord in that banks are required to adhere to three mechanisms for overall operational risk that are set to measure and control liquidity risk, of which credit risk is a big component (Banco de Espana, 2005). The key provisions of the Basel II Accord set forth that (Accenture, 2003): the capital allocation is risk sensitive, separation of operational risk, from credit risk, vary the capital requirements in keeping with the different types of business it conducts, and encourage the development and use of internal systems to aid the bank in arriving at capital levels that meet requirements An explanation of the tools utilised by banks in terms of evaluation as well as assessment will be further explored in the Analysis segment of this study. The steps and methodologies used by banks to identify, plan, map out, define a framework, develop an analysis and mitigate credit risk. The process via which banks identify, plan, map out, define frameworks, develop analyses, and mitigate credit risk represent areas as put forth by the Basel II Accord, which shall be defined in terms of the oversight measures and degrees of autonomy they have in this process. In terms of the word autonomy, it must be explained that the Basel II Accord regulates the standard of banking capital adequacy, setting forth defined measures for the analysis of risk that must meet with regulatory approval (Bank for International Settlements, 2007). This is specified under the three types of capital requirement frameworks that were designed to impact on the area of pricing risk to make the discipline proactive. The rationale for the preceding tiered process is that it acts as an incentive for banks to seek the top level that affords them with a lowered requirement for capital adequacy as a result of heightened risk management systems and processes across the board (Bank for International Settl ements, 2007). The foregoing takes into account liquidity (operational) risk as well as credit risk management and market risk. The risk management active foundation of the Basel II Accord separates operational risk from credit risk, with the foundation geared to making the risk management process sensitive, along with aligning regulatory and economic capital aspects into closer proximity to reduce arbitrage ranges (Schneider, 2004). The process uses a three-pillar foundation that consists of minimum capital requirements along with supervisory review as well as market discipline to create enhanced stability (Schneider, 2004). The three tiers in the Basel II Accord, consist of the following, which are critical in understanding the steps, and methodologies utilised by banks to identify, plan, map, define frameworks, analyse and mitigate risk (Bank for International Settlements, 2007): Standardised Approach This is the lowest level of capital adequacy calculation, thus having the highest reserves. Via this approach risk management is conducted in what is termed as a standardised manner, which is founded on credit being externally assessed, and other methods consisting of internal rating measures. In terms of banking activities, they are set forth under eight business categories (Natter, 2004): agency services, corporate finance, trading and sales, asset management, commercial banking, retail banking, retail brokerage, payment and settlement The methodology utilised under the standardised approach is based on operational risk that is computed as a percentage of the banks income that is derived from that line of business. Foundation Internal Rating Based Approach (IRB) (Bank for International Settlements, 2007) The Foundational IRB utilises a series of measurements in the calculation of credit risk. Via this method, banks are able to develop empirical models on their own for use in estimating default probability incidence for clients. The use of these models must first be reviewed and cleared by local regulators to assure that the models conform to standards that calculate results in a manner that is in keeping with banking processes in terms of outcomes and inputs to arrive at the end figures. Regulators require that the formulas utilised include Loss Given Default (LGD), along with parameters consisting of the Risk Weighted Asset (RWA) are part of the formulas used. Banks that qualify under this tier are granted a lower capital adequacy holding figure than those under the first tier. Advanced Internal Rating Based Approach (IRB) (Bank for International Settlements, 2007) Under this last tier, banks are granted the lowest capital adequacy requirements, if they qualify by the constructing of empirical models that calculate the capital needed to cover credit risk. The techniques, personnel and equipment needed to meet the foregoing are quite extensive, requiring a substantial investment of time, materials, funds, and personnel to accomplish the foregoing, thus this measure generally applies to the largest banks, that have the capability to undertake these tasks. As is the case under the Foundation Internal Rating Based Approach, the models developed must meet with regulator approval. Under this aspect of the Basel II provisions for this tier, banks are permitted to create quantitative models that calculate the following (Bank for International Settlements, 2007): Exposure at Default (EAD), the Risk Weighted Asset (RWA) Probability of Default (PD), and Loss Given Default (LGD). The above facets have been utilised to provide an understanding of the operative parameters put into place by Basel II that define the realm in which banks must operate. These tiers also illustrate that the depth of the manner in which banks identify, plan, map out, define frameworks, analyse and mitigate credit risks, which varies based upon these tiers. Under the Standardised Approach the formulas are devised by the regulators, with banks having the opportunity to devise their own models. Graphically, the preceding looks as follows: Chart 1 Basel II Three Pillars (Bank for International Settlements, 2007) Determine the relationship between the theories, concepts and models of credit risk management and what goes on practically in the banking world. The Basel Committee on Banking Supervision (2000) states that the goal of credit risk management is to maximise a banks risk adjusted rate of return by maintaining credit risk exposure within acceptable parameters. The foregoing extends to its entire portfolio, along with risk as represented by individual credits, and with transactions (Basel Committee on Banking Supervision, 2000). In discussing risk management theories, Pyle (1997)/span> states it is the process by which managers satisfy these needs by identifying key risks, obtaining consistent, understandable, operational risk measures, choosing which risks to reduce, and which risks to increase and by what means, and establishing procedures to monitor the resulting risk position. The preceding statement brings forth the complex nature of credit risk management. In understanding the application of risk it is important to note that credit risks are defined as changes in portfolio value due to the failure of counter parties to m eet their obligations, or due to changes in the markets perception of their ability to continue to do so (Pyle, 1997). In terms of practice, banks have traditionally utilised credit scoring, credit committees, and ratings in an assessment of credit risk (Pyle, 1997). Bank regulations treat market risk and credit risk as separate categories. J.P. Morgan Securities, Inc. (1997) brought forth the theory that the parallel treatment of market risk and credit risk would increase risk management by gauging both facets would aiding in contributing to the accuracy of credit risk by introducing external forces and influences into the equation that would reveal events and their correlation with credit risk. Through incorporating the influence and effect of external events via an historical perspective, against credit risk default rates, patterns and models result that can serve as useful alerts to pending changes in credit risk as contained in Pyles (1997)/span> statement that ended in due to changes in the markets perception of their ability to continue to do so. The Plausibility Theory as developed by Wolfgang Spohn represents an approach to making decisions in the face of unknowable risks (Value Based Management, Inc., 2007). Prior to the arrival of the Plausibility Theory, Bayesian statistics was utilised to predict and explain decision making which was based upon managers making decisions through weighing the likelihood of differing events, along with their projected outcomes (Value Based Management, Inc., 2007). Strangely, the foregoing this theory was not applied to banking. The Risk Threshold of the Plausibility Theory assesses a range of outcomes that may be possible, however it does focus on the probability of hitting a threshold point, such as net loss relative to acceptable risk (Value Based Management, Inc., 2007). The new Basel II Accord employs a variant of the foregoing that is termed as Risk Adjusted Return on Capital which is a measurement as well as management framework for measuring risk adjusted financial performance and for providing a consistent view of profitability across business (units divisions) (Value Based Management, Inc., 2007). The foregoing theory of including external events in a calculative model with business lines credit risks is yet to be fully accepted as the variables from external predictive models to result in scenarios along with credit risk models is a daunting set of equations. Ascertain the scope to which resourceful credit risk management can perk up bank performance. In equating how and the scope in which resourceful credit risk management can improve bank performance, one needs to be cognizant that credit risk represents the primary type of financial risk in the bank sector as well as existing in almost all areas that are income generating (Comptroller of the Currency, 2001). From the preceding it flows that a credit risk rating system that is managed and run well will and does promote bank soundness as well as safety through helping to make and implement decision making that is informed (Comptroller of the Currency, 2001). Through the construction and use of the foregoing, banking management as well as bank examiners and regulators are able to monitor trends as well as changes occurring in risk levels (Comptroller of the Currency, 2001). Through the preceding, management is able to better manage risk, thus optimising returns (Comptroller of the Currency, 2001). The improvement of credit risk management in terms of identification and monitoring, the process when operated effectively can improve bottom line performance through laying off risk identified as potentially being problematic in the future (KPMG, 2007). Zimmer (2005) helps us to understand the nuances of transferring credit risk by telling us: A bank collects funds and originates loans. It might only be able to attract funds if it holds some risk capital that finances losses and saves the bank from insolvency if parts of its loan portfolio default. If the bank faces increasing costs of raising external finance, CRT has a positive effect on the lending capacity of the bank. Providing the bank with additional risk capital, CRT lowers the banks opportunity cost of additional lending and increases its lending capacity. As has been covered herein, credit risk represents a potential income loss area for banks in that default subtracts from income, thus lowering a banks financial performance. The Bank for International Settlements (2003) advises that the principle cause of banking problems is directly related to credit standards that are lax, which is termed as poor risk management. The preceding reality has been documented by the The Bank for International Settlements (2003) that advises that poor credit risk management procedures and structures rob banks of income as they fail to identify risks that are in danger of default, and thus taking the appropriate actions. A discussion of the means via which resourceful credit risk management enhance bank performance in delved into under the Analysis segment of this study. To evaluate how regulators and government are assisting the banks to identify, mitigate credit risk, and helping to adopt the risk-based strategies to increase their profitability, and offering assistance on continuous basis. In delving into banking credit risk management in the United Kingdom, legislation represents the logical starting place as it sets the parameters and guidelines under which the banking sector must operate. The Basel II Accord represents the revised i

Youth Drug Abuse Hong Kong

Youth Drug Abuse Hong Kong Youth problem is a wide-ranged and intertwined one among the social problems. With the development of information technology and economics, the teenagers are faced with more temptations than the older generations of their age, in other words, they have more choices for fun, like online games, Japanese cartoon and animation books and magazines, everyday updated fashionable accessories, hi-tech products and something can make the young generation feel like in the trend. However, out of some reasons, they are prone to be addicted with the novelties and then deviate from their normal life, such as the internet addiction, alcohol abuse, drug abuse and so on. Some of those youth problems are independent, but most of them are relevant and can elicit each other. Quite recent, I watched a documentary film named the Crimson Jade telling a story about a drug abuse schoolgirl, which arouse me to dig more about the young drug abuse group. Thus, in this paper, I especially choose the youth drug ab use problem as the topic. Drug abuse is regarded as a serious teenager problem in Hong Kong. The age of the individuals who is the first time taking drug is younger than past: since 2007, the reported drug abuser under 21 increased by 34 percent within 3 years (Qing shao nian du pin wen ti zhuan ze xiao zu bao gao : zhai yao, 2008); In the year of 2007, almost all reported young drug abuser (99 percent) once took the mentally damaging drugs, only 2 percent of them took the traditional drugs (mainly the heroin), and there were 80.2 percent of young abuser took the ketamine for the most part (Qing shao nian du pin wen ti zhuan ze xiao zu bao gao : zhai yao, 2008).The developing traits of the Hong Kong teenagers drug abuse:1) the age of abusers tends to be younger as time goes on ; 2) increasing females become the drug abusers (Luan, 2010), the drug addictive female under 21 increased by 25 percent than the same duration in the first half year of 2008. 3% of youth are easily tend to be involved in drug dealing a nd/or smuggling. The definition of the youth drug abuse According to the definition of deviant behavior, the drug abuse is one of forms of that. Therefore, it is necessary to identify the meaning of former first. After reviewing the textbook, it can be illustrated that the deviance involves the activities do not compliant with the social norms and are unreached the expectations of members from a specific society (Haralambos, 2008). Deviance in a sociological context describes actions or behaviors that violate cultural norms including formally-enacted rules (e.g., crime) as well as informal violations of social norms (e.g., rejecting folkways and norms). It is the preview of sociologists, psychologists, psychiatrists, and criminologists to study how these norms are created, how they change over time and how they are enforced (Wikipedia, 2010). It can be illustrated that the crime, delinquency, different kinds of addictions are the forms of the deviant behaviors, and the drug abuse is one of the addictions. In terms of the definition of you th drug abuse, the American Psychiatric Associations Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM), no longer regarded drug abuse as a current medical diagnosis. Instead, DSM has adopted substance abuse (Wikipedia, 2010) as a blanket term to embrace drug abuse and other things. In my view, I think the youth drug abuse is young people who have their internal problems (mental and physical) and influenced by the external factors from their peers, families, neighhoods, and social trend and culture, are resulting in passive emotion, thereby tending to transfer or shirking the negative emotion temporarily through taking drugs without tackling the concrete problems. Additionally, according to Elises lecture, it was told that the alcohol abuse also belong to the drug abuse, for the alcohol is one of the chemicals can induce the mentally active abnormal syndrome. But in this paper, it mainly narrows down the topic to the usual understanding of the drugs like ketamine, heroin an d marijuana etc. The nature and origin of youth drug abuse The micro level 1) Individual factor: partial reasons are personality and the developmental physical function of the young drug abuse. The former is instinctively from the perspective of the psychology, such as sensation or novelty seeking, inhibition and antisocial traits. The people who are inclined to be the drug abuser showed several personality deficits in common: 1) Behavioral problem. 2) Emotional obsession. 3) Low self-esteem. 4) Low resistance to obstacles.5) Swaying will(Yang, 2008).the latter is physiology, for adolescence is the transition from child to teenagers whose physical functions are developing under flux, thus some deficit of the body might be aroused during that time (Luan, 2010). Analyses of many studies have concluded that genes influence 40 to 50 percent of the variation in antisocial behaviors with a population, and 60 to 65 percent of the variation in aggressive antisociality (Rhee Waldmam, 2002; Tackett, Krugeger, Iacono, McGue, 2005). Owing to the research of Coleman, the certain genes in some individuals can render them more prone to be the drug abusers (2009).In addition, Laura deemed that the addiction is a disease in the brain that can control of it (2008). The mezzo level 1) Family factors: the family integrity (whether the teenage lives with single parent or not), the communication pattern of the family members etc., especially the lacking of monitoring of a teenagers interpersonal relationship and whereabouts, regarded as the most influential predictor of the drug use of that age (Chilcoat and Anthony, 1996; Williams and Hine, 2002).Further more, the parents acknowledgement and the cognition on the drugs can not match the developmental understanding of their childrens. There were 30 percent of interviewed parents did not know or could not be sure about whether their children had taken drugs or not (Ming Pao, 2009). It is the fact that parents are lacking the basic knowledge on updated drug-taking development in youth; therefore they are not that sensitive and alert to the slight symptoms or unusual behaviors of their children, and their care for the children might put in the inappropriate place. 2) Peer factors: except the parenting influence, the peer group is the sources of affection, sympathy, understanding, moral guidance, a place for experimentation, a setting for achieving autonomy and independence from parents (Papalia, 2009). Adolescence is the transition stage of an individual, from which an individual gradually starts to live more independent and dedicate more time with peers. Therefore, the peers or friends choosing for the youth play a pivotal role in accepting influence from the people they hang out with. Some negative peer pressure might breed from the interaction among the association, for instance, a negative role model in a clique takes drugs and also escape the punishment from law might encourage his or her friends to try the drug, for complicated combination of the fluke mind and peer pressure, the rest member of the clique probably might imitate the negative one. From 2008 to the first half year of 2010, according to statistics results from the Narcotics Division, Security Bureau of Hong Kong, there was over 60 percent respondent to choose the Influenced by the peers, I want to fit in the peers group as the initial reason why they take the drugs for straight years(ND, 2010). Additionally, young people are inclined to those whose are similar to themselves in school achievement, adjustment, and prosocial or antisocial tendencies (Collins et al., 2000; B. B. Brown et al., 1993). 3) School and community risk factors: Friedman took the view that the teenagers who had poor academic performance and/or behavioral problems are prone to substance abuse at a high risk (Friedman, Bransfield, Kreisher, 1994). A strict disciplinary school can possibly restrict teenagers from the potential influence of the other factors. At school teachers evaluate students basically towards their academic performance instead of well-rounded perspective out limited human resources and effective and applicable methods. Students who have poor performance academically might be looked upon as the deviants and bad students at school. In my point of view, the school the whereabouts those students who have poor academic performance are labeled as the bad ones. Because self-concepts of individuals are largely stemmed from the responses of others, and they will tend to indentify themselves with that certain label (Haralambos, 2008); some young people are just potentially deviant once labeled as the concrete deviant, which will possibly trigger them give off the potential tendency into reality as well as the behaviors are going to be reinforced. From the perspective of labeling theory, Becker thought that the deviant behaviors resulted from those who had power could define others and make them label sticker. Here it can be seen that the school is the party with power who seems can be the judge, meanwhile, the students are compelled to receive the inappropriate judgment, which is unfair and ill-considered. As for Lemert the other advocator of the theory, he deemed that there were the primary deviation and the secondary deviation that publically labeled. But the former effected very little to whom were labeled for the first time, which means, it is slightly possible to elicit the being first labeled ones to do something deviant. Only the latter was the determinant cause for the concrete deviant to happen. If some students with poor academic performance receive the negatively labeling comments (they can be regarded as the negative punishment) again and again, there is no doubt that the self-identities are questioned and the potential deviant tendency will be possibly triggered. In terms of community, the living circumstance of teenagers is quite important. The accessibility to the drugs of the neighborhoods and the degree of awareness of forbidden drugs are the influential factors for the teenagers. I think the influences can be good or not, it can be imagined that if the young people with drug abusive tendency live in positively active neighborhoods, the possibility for them of transforming into the drug abuser is still quite low, therefore neighborhoods can play the vital roles as the positive reinforcement for the possible deviant behavior of the youth. The macro level 1) Culture and social factors: from the perspective of Marxism, it is acknowledged that the economic foundation decides the superstructure. Hong Kong is a world class cosmopolitan city with rapid speed life tempo, no matter which aspect is in the first class of the world. Hong Kong people can have the most updated electronic products, the comic books, and the so-called leisure style like taking some drugs, which are pretty attractive for the young people to give it a try. The teenagers of that age are easy to do something deviant impulsively and over-esteemed to think they can control themselves, which lead them to deem that taking drugs is not a big deal. The misconception of leisure modes in these entertainment mass media is likely to have deteriorative effects on the moral conscience of the young people. In addition, all kind forms of mass media like the TV, radio, magazines, newspapers, especially the barrier-free internet services create infinite accessibilities for the juveniles to the violence and pornography that are exactly one of the sources giving the chance to the youth to imitate the negative side of the humanity consciously or subconsciously, like instigating peers to try the drugs or even being the drug dealers. In the light of the exploratory study by Yung Lai fong, she concluded that the adverse influence of the unhealthy representations on newspapers/movies/VCDs was great. The comic books/magazines on sex and violence, in particular, appeared to have the most damaging effects on the healthy development of young people (Yung, L, Edith, 1998). There is no doubt that the mass media does have the far-reaching and perpetuating impacts on the development of the young people intellectually and morally, and on their attitudes and perspectives towards self and others as well. In conclusion, the three levels analysis for the origin and nature of the youth drug abuse are reciprocal to each other, one factor can not bring about the consequence of youth drug abuse recursively. The factors of different levels are considered as the social institutions, and they interact and have mutual impact to each other, in the specific condition, can turn the drug abusive tendency into reality. Intervention from different levels In my opinion, the social worker can be compared to the agent that is functioning as the bridge between the client and the other social institutions. Therefore, it is necessary to fully tap the functions of the agent to bridge well connections among those social institutions. From the macro level, in campus and off campus, social workers can promote and popularize the essential knowledge on drugs and its damage as well as the negative influences to abusers and their families, peers and the society. Especially, the agency can bring the advantages of mass media into full play by cooperating with them, and its social workers can held some activities in order to disseminate the general ideas on disadvantages and the irreversible damages to the youth, and advocate the appropriate way to report some pop stars who take drugs and favorable in teenagers but not advocate it as a novel lifestyles.E.g: In the mezzo and micro levels, social workers and the agency can filter down the target group, and then carry out the relevant intervention plans. When carrying out the intervention, social workers should be sensitive about the slight changes of the high risky youth, and the possible behavioral characteristics them are as follows: 1) Borrowing money from friends more often. 2) The abuser is looked dispirited and low-energy, sometimes having unusual excitements and meaninglessness behavior. 3) The abuser immediately turns to be depressive after behaving happily and talkatively (00).In terms of the specific approach, the social workers can adopt the CBT-MBT (Cognitive Behavioral Therapy with Motivational Therapy), according to previous experience, CBT-MBT has been evaluated primarily in cases of young people abusing marijuana, 10 out of 12 randomized clinical trails have supported the effectiveness of the approach, with the effects persisting for as long as 30 months after treatment (W aldron, Turner,2008).The social workers can also refer to practical skills during a ten-session CBT: 1) refusing offers to use drugs; 2) expanding the young persons networks; 3) avoiding high-risk drug use situations; 4) managing anger; 5) communicating with parents and peers; 6) dealing with depressed mood ;7) coping with craving (Scharffer, Chang, Henggeler, 2008). In my point of view, among those skills, the social workers should carry them out logically and progressively according to different situations and the major inducement of taking drugs of clients. For example, given that the clients are easily prone to be influenced by peers and less decisive, he or she took drugs largely because his or her so-called friends did. In consideration of this, firstly, the social worker can concentrate on the teaching the skill of refusing offers to use drugs; secondly, it is crucial to find out the behind reasons through skillful counseling. Maybe the client feels lacking the support from f amily or can not be understood by others etc. which possibly contribute to different solutions and methods to deal with clients situation. During the counseling process, finding the strength (Hepworth, 2009) of the client is especially important for social workers to make it a part of the intervention. It is the essential solution that encouraging the clients to believe in themselves in order to enhance the self-strength efficiency during the process. The social worker can assist the client to set short term goal and long run goal for the sake of strengthening the self-esteem of the client. When the goals are settled, the social can also put forward the monitoring plan including the weekly meeting and self-monitoring on the behalf of the client. In all, it is practical to evoke the positive sides of the clients like helping and taking care of others, the pursuit of life goal, the capacity of anti-stress and meet the challenges. Parents are the key to the successful intervention. For the social worker, they can hold the workshop, panel discussion and keep in tough with parents. Because of lacking daily communication and interaction with the children, most young drug abusers parents did not realize the changes of their children. The social workers held the workshop in order to create more opportunities for enhancing the interaction between those parents and children via interactive games and role-playing of using the videotapes to model positive and negative parent-child interaction, discussion etc. (Scharffer, Henggeler,2008). If the social worker finds the drug abuse /addiction case or is informed by the other parties, such as teachers, students and community members, it is necessary to make the referral in order to help the abuser efficiently and timely. After the rehabilitation, the case still requires to be followed in the long run, for there is usually existing the recrudesce of drug addiction in the following months. Information inclination: The cognition conducts the behavior, in the aspect of diversified intervention methods, that is to say, what kind of the perspectives towards the matters decides the information inclination. Showing the mass media materials like videotapes and newspapers can provide vivid examples of the physical and mental disadvantages and damages to the clients. Theories Labeling theory: Social learning theory: Julian Rotter moved away from theories based on psychosis and behaviorism, and developed a learning theory. In Social Learning and Clinical Psychology (1954), Rotter suggests that the effect of behavior has an impact on the motivation of people to engage in that specific behavior. This social learning theory suggests that behavior is influenced by these environmental factors or stimulus, and not psychological factors alone. Albert Bandura (1977) expanded on Rotters idea, as well as earlier work by Miller Dollard (1941), and is related to social learning theories of Vygotsky and Lave. Social learning suggests a combination of environmental (social) and psychological factors influence behaviors. This theory incorporates aspects of behavioral and cognitive learning. Behavioral learning assumes that peoples environment (surroundings) cause people to behave in certain ways. Cognitive learning presumes that psychological factors are important for influencing how one behaves. Push-pull Theory Differential Association theory Evidences/ supports of the youth substance abuser: Peer influence is the major cause of youth drug abuseAccording to the survey in 2004, it reported that the commonest drug suppliers were the peers of the teenagers with 51.8 percent, and there were only 10.4 percent by drug dealers and 8.2 percent to 10.8 percent by parents, family members and relatives respectively. When the young drug abusers encounter some problems or troubles they tend to seek for help from those who provided the drugs to them as their first choice rather than the parents, teachers and social workers. One interesting founding in the 2004 survey was that psychotropic substance abusers would rather to get help from their close friends first (26.8percent ) than seek help from parents first with 11.8 percent and seek help from social workers counted to 9.3 percent. The reason for first try of drugs: Knowledge deficit, misconceptions of substance use, academic problems, family problems and poor relationship with parents and peers have also driven them to have their first try (The 2004 Survey of Drug Use among Students, 2005; Boys, Marsden, Strang, 2001).

Happiness: John Stuart Mill vs Immanuel Kant :: Utilitarianism Essays

Happiness. People go to any means by which to obtain the many varied materials and issues that induce pleasures in each individual, and intrinsically, this emotion remains the ultimate goal, John Stuart Mill, a nineteenth century philosopher, correctly advocated the pursuit of happiness, and maintained the concept that above all other values, pleasure existed as the final destination, Mill's hedonistic views correctly and rationally identified a natural human tendency, and his Utilitarian arguments strongly support the theory that above all else, happiness is the most important dream to be fulfilled. Upon researching for this paper, I came across a counter argument, which was based on metaphysics. Immanuel Kant, in Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals, defends his strong beliefs in the issue of a good will, and surfaces as MM's chief opponent on the topic of metaphysics, The issue diminishes to a clash between emotions and pleasures ve rses rationality and logic. Yet, what use is logic when the good agent is miserable? Mill's stance within Utilitarianism exists as the more favorable of the two beliefs, for happiness exist as the one intrinsically favorable element, not an emotionless mind. The main defender of the Utilitarian system exists within the Greatest happiness Principle. Mill lived as a chief advocate of this concept, which supports the idea that a decision is morally correct as long as it increases and encourages pleasures and happiness. Kant, however, in his endless quest to remain separate from emotions and thrive only on logic, would argue that autonomy should be placed above happiness in a list of intrinsic values. A good will, however, does not comfort an individual in any way if happiness does not accompany this asset, Consider this example of a seemingly happily married couple. The wife in this duo is madly in love with her husband fiercely loyal, and completely happy with her marriage and children. The husband, however, as wrongfully strayed, and had a brief, but damaging affair behind his wife's back. Kant would argue that autonomy reigns over pleasure, and the woman should therefore want to be informed of her husband's adultery, Mill would greatly disagree. By revealing the secret of the past affair, the woman's happy world would be instantly shattered. Her pride would diminish, her stability would fall apart, and the children especially would be forced to view a nasty side of their beloved father. In this case, individual control is greatly overshadowed by the need for happiness. The husband is no longer acting unfaithful and the family can easily continue to live in a happy realm, If the secret were to

Yuki Tanakas Japans Comfort Women Essay example -- China Japan War R

Yuki Tanaka's "Japan's Comfort Women" This paper is a review of the book Japan’s Comfort Women-Sexual slavery and prostitution during WWII and the US occupation by Yuki Tanaka. This book was published in 2002 by Routledge. The book deals with the thousands of Japanese, Korean, Chinese and other Asian and European women who were victims of organized sexual violence and prostitution by means of â€Å"comfort stations† setup by the Japanese military during World War II.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  As we first get into the book, we find out that the origins of comfort stations i.e. military brothels are unknown, but official documents strongly suggest that the Japanese Imperial Forces created comfort stations roughly around 1931-1932 for Japanese sailors. In the introduction we get some of Tanaka’s personal opinions and thoughts, and a vivid account of what it felt like to be a comfort woman by a Filipina. â€Å"Twelve soldiers raped me in quick succession, after which I was given half an hour rest. Then twelve more soldiers followed. I bled so much and was in such pain; I could not even stand up† (p.1). During the war, the Japanese could see that their soldiers were committing mass rape toward civilians. That led military leaders to ask the Japanese government for comfort stations to be made in order to prevent such crimes. This is a quote from a Japanese Lieutenant-General in 1932. â€Å"Recently I have heard a lot of scandalous stories, inc luding that some of our soldiers wander around seeking women. Such a phenomenon is hard to prevent as fighting becomes less frequent. Therefore the establishment of appropriate facilities must be accepted as a good cause and should be promoted† (p.10). They were also created to boost soldier morale and to prevent the spread of VD among fellow troops. In the first couple of chapters Tanaka explains how women from different countries were procured into working as sex slaves and how they were brought into such dealings. The women used for comfort houses were at first professional Japanese prostitutes, and poor Japanese and Korean women. They were usually recruited by an agent who would go to a specific town and look for girls to recruit. Of course deceit was used to get these girls to come in that they were promised a nice paying job, food, and shelter if they came along. The recruiting of Korean women was a way of the Japanese to colonize their newly gai... ...ned to police because of fear of being harmed, so the exact number is hard to tell. Most GI’s did not care for the Japanese because they had won the war and thought everything around them were spoils of the war that they had every right to indulge in. Lots of numeric figures and testimonies of actual rapes are prevalent in this chapter. Tanaka in the final chapter talks about how during the occupation the Allied forces forced the Japanese to â€Å"voluntarily† setup services to adhere to their men. The Recreation and Amusement Association was created to provide sexual and recreational entertainment to the Allied forces occupying Japan. These services included not only comfort houses but beer halls, restaurants for officers, billiard clubs, and dance halls like cabaret. The Allied forces did not want to seem as bad guys by forcing Japan to do these things. So they used blackmail in order to get what they want. By mere suggestion, the Allied forces hinted that their s tay would be shorter if the Japanese gave them what they wanted. It is ironic how setting up comfort houses ended up backfiring against the Japanese as their own citizens were now being exploited due to occupation by force.

I’m Not an Imitation of Someone Else, I’m Latina :: Personal Narrative Writing

I’m Not an Imitation of Someone Else, I’m Latina As I sat at the kitchen table on those chilly winter evenings in Kenner, Louisiana, I could feel my mother staring at me from where she was. I was busy doing my homework, and she was preparing that night's supper. She would always start off by asking me what I was doing and the only thing I would ever answer was, "Oh, nothing. Just homework." Then I would turn away and sort of look in the other direction as if to tell her to leave me alone, because I had a lot to do. At the time I was only eight years old, in my second complete year of schooling in the United States. I had already fully grasped the English language, and it had been a year and a half since I had been removed from the bilingual program. In actuality, I had become Americanized quiet easily. Although this was a process that involvedgive and take, because although I did adapt to my new environment very well, I never let go of what I had already learned in my previous environment. I can recall that at the same time that I was learning to read and write in English, I was also learning to do so in my native tongue, Spanish. In school, as I sat in the small wooden house, which was the bilingual classroom, I could clearly remember wondering why it was that "Spot" was so important. For more than a month we had been learning about this brown dog and about seeing him run. This experience was very strange for me, not only because it was in a totally new language but because I never did really see spot run. I only saw him painted on an oversized illustrated notebook. After a long and confusing day at school, I would come home to do my assignments; alone. It wasn't that my mother did not want to help me, but she couldn't. She knew little about the assignment , and knew even less about the language. At first I didn't mind. The assignments were easy for me to figure out, and if it was really hard I would just tell the teacher the next day that I couldn't figure it out. Sh e would ask me why I didn't ask my mother for help, and I would have to respond to her, "because she didn't know either.

A Halloween Night Essay

The town next to ours was a little mining town called Cheshire. Despite it being a productive and rich mining town, it was well known for the Legend of the Witches Circle. It was said that twelve witches used to live here. At the struck of midnight, they would fly around the town, creating nuisance and scaring off anyone in their path. After many deaths, people fled the town, fearing falling victim to the evil witches. Mining was halted and the town was abandoned. No one has returned to Cheshire ever since. The mood of Halloween was in the air. It was the end of October and large pumpkins were being put out for sale at the farms. Everyone in Saintsbury was getting ready for Halloween. Statues of goblins and evil witches could be seen everywhere. It was finally here, Halloween night. The streetlights were not working. Instead, the faint glows of candlelight lined the street. I was a bit old to go trick or treating; I had better plans with my friend. Jack, a good friend of mine had planned for us to pay a little visit to Cheshire, to prove to ourselves right that the legend of the witches were just a myth. I met up with him downtown and we got what we needed, and set out on the dark winding path through the forest leading into Cheshire. The noise began to slowly fade away. The forest was strangely quiet that night. I could hear myself breathing heavily. We walked arm in arm, guided by the dim light from the small torch. It was a true Halloween night. The full moon was shining through the bare branches casting eerie shadows on our path as we walked. A cool breeze was blowing sending leaves dancing messily across the forest floor. I remember thinking to myself that this night was truly the kind that you imagine when you listen to a scary tale. Holding tightly to the person next to you, just like I was holding Jack as we walked that evening. The path we walked on would take us past the cemetery and end at the crest above Devil’s Den, where it is believed the witches used to slay their victims every night. We chose this path because of it being the night it was. We were feeling young and out for an adventure. An adventure that led us into the heart of the townà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½s legendary witches’ circle. As we walked past the cemetery a group of mischievous boys came jumping out from behind some tombstones and trees. My heart was in my throat and I felt Jack give a startled jump. â€Å"Oi, what the hell do you think youà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½re doing!† shouted Jack. They ran away laughing, off to find their next victim. My I was still looking terrified and when Jack turned to see if I was all right, he started laughing too. Then jokingly, I sent him stumbling backwards over a log into a big pile of leaves from a nearby oak tree. I ran and found a good spot to hide, to do some scaring of my own. I had settled in behind a rock above Devil’s Den and feeling pleased with myself, waited for the sound of crunching leaves. I listened carefully, but what broke the silence was not the sound I expected. From below, in Devil’s Den, I heard chanting. I slowly turned around to see who or what it was that was chanting. Suddenly, from behind, an arm grabbed me. I opened my mouth to scream, but it was quickly covered by a second hand. As I struggled to get loose I wondered what had happened to Jack and if I was going to die tonight. Reality set in when I heard Jack’s voice whispering my name. When I finally settled down, he whispered for me to be quiet before he released his hand from over my mouth. As he released his hold, my eyes drifted down to the strange sight below. † Oh my God!!!† I said. In the valley below, surrounding a large stone altar, stood twelve figures. They were dressed in black gowns with hoods that hung over their faces, giving them an eerie appearance. As they stood encircling the altar their soft chanting could be heard. Soon my body was covered with goose bumps as their voices softly filled the night air. From the cover of the night we knelt watching in silence. Then there was silence as a man leading a goat appeared out of the darkness. They tied the goat to the altar while a new figure entered the light. In his hand was a large dagger that he carried to the top of the altar then knelt and chanted softly. Slowly he rose, raising the dagger high into the air, then with a loud cry he lowered the blade into the screaming goats chest. With ease he sliced open the goat while it cried and squirmed. Then, as if it was an orange he began to peel its skin from the body. When he had finished he held the head and skin high into the air as if he was praying to his god. He called for power as he placed the goat’s head in place. The skin was still wet with blood and it clung to his back. Blood covered his face as it ran from the goat’s head before falling to the ground. Then he turned and spoke to the darkness. A young woman entered into the light and in her arms she carried a small child. There was no expression on her face as she placed the child upon the altar before turning and walking back into the darkness. The child laid cradled in the carcass of the goat as the leader fell to his knees at the side of the altar. The other twelve, still encircling the altar, continued the chanting. Their cries became louder and louder. Suddenly there was silence as the leader stood. He raised the dagger into the air, a cold dark expression on his face as he again prayed to his god. Just as he was ready to plunge the blade into the child, a scream pierced the night. Their eyes searched the darkness for the intruder and soon all eyes were on me. The eyes of the Death Leader locked into mine. Then all went black. I woke up with the sensation of heat against my skin. I looked around and saw twelve black figures standing around me. My hands were tied back to a pole and around me was a big ring of fire. Barely opening my eyes, because of the intense heat, I looked for Jack. I could not find him. Then I saw it. On the altar, lay the body of a young man. I tried to stand on my toe to see is he was all right. I felt sick. His body was covered with blood. A deep cut ran straight down his chest. I turned away, not being able to bear what I just saw. I looked up to the figure sitting next to the altar. It was terrifying. It was the most hideous face I had ever seen. It had a pale yellow skin and had holes for eyes. He stared at me coldly and stood up before reaching for the dagger, soaking in blood, from the altar. I got terrified and struggled to free myself, to no avail. I let out a scream, as he raised the dagger into the air, his cold eyes staring into mine. I held my eyes shut, waiting for it. Then all went silent. I opened my eyes, much to my relief. Everything was gone, my hands were untied. The rays of sun, arising amidst the clouds, broke the darkness. The altar and fire was gone too.